Horizontal and vertical transfers of water masses into the ocean are carried out circulation systems of various sizes. It is customary to divide them into micro-, meso- And macrocirculatory. The circulation of water usually occurs in the form of a system of vortices, which can be cyclonic (the mass of water moves counterclockwise and rises) and anticyclonic (with the water moving clockwise and down). Movements of both types correspond to atmospheric ones and are generated by wave frontal disturbances. Cyclo-anticyclonic activity in the troposphere continues downward; in the oceanosphere it is localized, as we will see below, in accordance with atmospheric fronts and centers of atmospheric action.
With the constant movement of water masses, they converge in some places and diverge in others. Convergence is called convergence, divergence - divergence. During convergence, water accumulates, the ocean level rises, the pressure and density of water increases, and it sinks. During divergence (for example, divergence of currents), the level of deep water also decreases.
Convergence and divergence can occur between the moving water mass (for example, a current) and the shore. If, as a result of the Coriolis force, the current approaches the shore, convergence occurs and the water descends. As the current moves away from the shore, divergence is observed, as a result of which deep water rises.
Finally, both vertical and horizontal circulation are caused by the difference in water densities. On average, on the surface it is 1.02474; with increasing salinity and decreasing water temperature, it increases; with decreasing salinity and warming, it decreases (remember that 1%o = 1 kg of salts per 1 ton of water).
Micro circulation systems in the ocean they have the form of vortices of a cyclonic and anticyclonic nature with a diameter of 200 m to 30 km (Stepanov, 1974). They usually form along wave disturbances of the front, penetrate 30-40 m deep, in some places up to 150 m, and exist for several days.
Mesocirculation systems are water cycles, also of a cyclo- and anticyclonic nature, with a diameter of 50 to 200 km and a depth of usually 200-300 m, sometimes up to 1000 m. They arise on bends or meanders of fronts. Closed water cycles are formed without connection with fronts. They can be caused by wind, uneven ocean floors, or coastal configurations.
Macrocirculation systems are quasi-stationary systems of planetary water exchange, usually called ocean currents. They are discussed below.
Structure of the World Ocean. The structure of the World Ocean is its structure - vertical stratification of waters, horizontal (geographical) zonality, the nature of water masses and ocean fronts.
In the process of planetary exchange of matter and energy in the atmosphere and hydrosphere, the properties of the waters of the World Ocean are formed. The energy of water movement, coming with solar radiation, enters the ocean from above. It is natural, therefore, that in a vertical section the water column breaks up into large layers similar to the layers of the atmosphere; they should also be called spheres.
Since the ocean changed in geological time (and dynamic equilibrium is always maintained in planetary exchange), it is obvious that the stratification of the ocean and the horizontal circulation of water (currents) had certain features in each geological era.
7. Structure of the waters of the World Ocean.
Horizontal and vertical structure waters of the World Ocean. The concept of water masses and ocean fronts. Mechanisms of formation of water masses. Methods for identifying water masses and oceanic fronts. Transformation of water masses. Classification of water masses and ocean fronts.
Vertical structural zones of the water column of the World Ocean. Oceanic troposphere, oceanic stratosphere.
8. Dynamics of the waters of the World Ocean.
The main forces acting in the ocean. Ocean currents: concept, classifications. Theories of the genesis of currents in the World Ocean.
The main circulation systems in the World Ocean. Deep circulation. Convergence and divergence. Ocean vortices.
The emergence and development of waves in the ocean. Classification of waves. Wave elements. Assessment of the degree of wind waves. Behavior of wind waves off different types of coasts. Seiches, tsunamis, internal waves. Waves in cyclones.
Fundamentals of the classical theory of sea waves (wave theory for deep sea, wave theory for shallow seas). Wave energy balance equation. Methods for calculating wind waves.
Physical patterns of the formation of tides. Static theory of tides. Dynamic theory of tides. Classification and characteristics of tides. Tidal inequality. Tidal phenomena in the ocean.
9. Ocean level.
The concept of a level surface. Periodic and non-periodic level fluctuations.
Intermediate level: concept, types, methods of definition. Hydrometeorological reasons for level fluctuations. Dynamic causes of level fluctuations.
Water balance of the World Ocean and its components.
10. sea ice in the climate system.
Factors in the formation and melting of sea ice. Current state of sea ice cover.
Sea ice balance equation.
Glacial-interglacial oscillations in the Pleistocene. Intracentury changes in sea ice distribution. Instability threshold. Self-oscillations in the “ocean – atmosphere – glaciation” system.
Sea ice as a factor of climate change. Sea ice and atmospheric circulation.
11. Ocean-atmosphere system.
General characteristics of the processes of interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere. Scale of interaction. Radiation balance of the ocean. Heat exchange in the ocean-atmosphere system and its climate-forming significance. Ocean heat balance equation and its analysis.
Moisture exchange in the ocean-atmosphere system. Salt balance and its relationship with water balance. Gas exchange in the ocean-atmosphere system.
The concept of the hydrological cycle. Regularities of formation of the hydrological cycle. Basic equations describing the atmospheric part of the hydrological cycle. Dynamic interaction between the ocean and atmosphere.
The influence of the ocean on climate and weather-forming processes in the atmosphere.
EDUCATIONAL AND METHODOLOGICAL MAP OF THE ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE
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sections, topics |
Title of section, topic |
Number of classroom hours |
Number of hours USR |
Knowledge control form |
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Practical exercises |
Seminar classes |
Laboratory exercises |
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Introduction to the subject |
Oral survey |
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History of oceanology and oceanological research |
Oral survey |
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Oceanological measurement methods |
Defense of abstracts |
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Geological and geophysical characteristics of the World Ocean. |
Oral survey |
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Morphometric characteristics of the World Ocean |
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Relief of the ocean floor |
Checking calculation and graphic works |
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Gravitational, magnetic and electric fields of the ocean. |
Checking calculation and graphic works |
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Physical properties of sea water. |
Oral survey |
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Equation of state of sea water |
Checking calculation and graphic works |
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Thermal properties of sea water |
Oral survey |
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Anomalies in the physical properties of water |
Checking calculation and graphic works |
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Chemical properties of sea water |
Oral survey |
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Salt balance of the world's oceans |
Checking calculation and graphic works |
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Optical and acoustic properties of sea water. |
Oral survey |
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Propagation of light and sound in sea water |
Oral survey |
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Mixing of waters in the ocean |
Oral survey |
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Density stratification of ocean waters |
Oral survey |
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Ocean level |
Oral survey |
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Periodic and non-periodic level fluctuations. |
Checking calculation and graphic works |
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Water balance of the World Ocean and its components. |
Checking calculation and graphic works |
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Structure of the World Ocean waters |
Oral survey |
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Horizontal structure of the waters of the World Ocean |
Checking calculation and graphic works |
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Vertical structural zones of the waters of the World Ocean |
Checking calculation and graphic works |
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Dynamics of the World Ocean waters. |
Oral survey |
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Currents in the World Ocean |
Checking calculation and graphic works |
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Main circulation systems in the World Ocean |
Checking calculation and graphic works |
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Unrest in the World Ocean |
Checking calculation and graphic works |
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Methods for calculating wind waves |
Checking calculation and graphic works |
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Dynamic and static theories of tides |
Checking calculation and graphic works |
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Sea ice in the climate system |
Oral survey |
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Sea ice balance equation |
Oral survey |
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Ocean-atmosphere system |
Oral survey |
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Ocean heat balance equation and its analysis |
Checking calculation and graphic works |
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The concept of the hydrological cycle and the patterns of its formation |
Oral survey |
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The influence of the ocean on climate and weather-forming processes in the atmosphere |
Defense of abstracts |
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INFORMATIONAL AND METHODOLOGICAL PART
Literature
Main
Vorobyov V.N., Smirnov N.P. General oceanology. Part 2. Dynamic processes. – St. Petersburg: ed. RGGMU, 1999. – 236 p.
Egorov N.I. Physical oceanography. – L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1974. – 456 p.
Zhukov L.A. General oceanology: (textbook for universities specializing in “Oceanology”). – L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1976. – 376 p.
Malinin V.N. General oceanology. Part 1. Physical processes. – St. Petersburg: ed. RGGMU, 1998. – 342 p.
Neshiba S. Oceanology. Modern ideas about the liquid shell of the Earth: Per. from English – M.: Mir, 1991. – 414 p.
Shamraev Yu.I., Shishkina L.A. Oceanology. – L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1980. – 382 p.
Additional
Alekin O.A., Lyakhin Yu.I. Ocean chemistry. – L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1984. – 344 p.
Bezrukov Yu.F. Level fluctuations and waves in the World Ocean. Tutorial. – Simferopol, 2001. – 52 p.
Bezrukov Yu.F. Oceanology. Part 1. Physical phenomena and processes in the ocean. – Simferopol, 2006. – 162 p.
Davydov L.K., Dmitrieva A.A., Konkina N.G. General hydrology. – L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1973. – 464 p.
Dolganovsky A.M., Malinin V.N. Hydrosphere of the Earth. – St. Petersburg: Gidrometeoizdat, 2004. – 632 p.
Doronin Yu.P. Interaction between the atmosphere and the ocean. – L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1981. – 288 p.
Doronin Yu.P. Physics of the ocean. – St. Petersburg: ed. RGGMU, 2000. – 340 p.
Zakharov V.F., Malinin V.N. Sea ice and climate. – St. Petersburg: Gidrometeoizdat, 2000. – 92 p.
Kagan B.A. Interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere. – St. Petersburg: Gidrometeoizdat, 1992. – 335 p.
Lappo S.S., Gulev S.K., Rozhdestvensky A.E. Large-scale thermal interaction in the ocean-atmosphere system and energy-active regions of the World Ocean. – L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1990. – 336 p.
Malinin V.N. Moisture exchange in the ocean-atmosphere system. – St. Petersburg: Gidrometeoizdat, 1994. – 198 p.
Monin A.S. Hydrodynamics of the atmosphere and ocean and the interior of the earth. – St. Petersburg: Gidrometeoizdat, 1999. – 524 p.
Peri A.H., Walker J.M. The ocean-atmosphere system. – L.: Gidrometeizdat, 1979. – 193 p.
Eisenberg D., Kautsman V. Structure and properties of water. – L.: Gidrometeoizdat, 1975. – 280 p.
List of diagnostic tools used
oral survey,
defense of the abstract,
checking calculation and graphic works,
Sample list of USR tasks
Topic: “Methods of oceanological measurements.”
Task 1. Draw in a workbook and prepare brief description the operating principle of basic hydrological instruments (radiometer, bathometer, STD probe, oceanological pressure gauges and thermometers, instruments for seabed research and biological research).
“Cruise observations in the World Ocean”,
"Stationary observations in the World Ocean",
"Remote Observations of the World Ocean"
“Methods of direct oceanological measurements”,
“Methods of indirect oceanological measurements”,
“Methods for improving the quality of oceanological measurements”,
“Main types of processing of oceanological observations”,
“Mathematical modeling of oceanological processes”,
“Application of GIS technologies to solve oceanological problems”,
"Oceanological Databases".
Topic: “Gravitational, magnetic and electric fields of the ocean.”
Task 1. Construct graphs showing the dependence of the electrical conductivity of sea water: a) on salinity, b) on temperature, c) on pressure.
Task 2. Plot the axes of magnetic anomalies of mid-ocean ridges on the contour map of the World Ocean.
Topic: “Anomalies of the physical properties of water.”
Task 1. Construct graphs of the dependence of freezing temperatures and the highest density of water on salinity and analyze them in relation to sea and brackish waters.
Task 2. Independently, having studied the literature, prepare and fill out the table “Changes in the physical properties of water during isotope substitution.”
Theme: “Water balance of the World Ocean and its components.”
Task 1. Construct and analyze the table “Average latitudinal distribution of the components of the Earth’s water balance.”
Task 2. Prepare in text form an analysis “Comparative characteristics of the components of the water balance of the oceans” (according to options: Atlantic - Pacific, Pacific - Indian, Atlantic - Indian, Arctic - Indian)
Topic: “Horizontal structure of the waters of the World Ocean.”
Task 1. Draw the main oceanic and dynamic fronts of the World Ocean on a contour map.
Task 2. According to the task given by the teacher (according to options), carry out a graphical analysis of the T, S-curves of the oceanological station.
Theme: “Vertical structural zones of the waters of the World Ocean.”
Task 1. Construct graphs of the vertical distribution of temperature and salinity for various types stratification based on data provided by the teacher (according to options).
Task 2. Analyze the geographical types of distribution of temperature and salinity in depth in the World Ocean (according to options: tropical - temperate latitudes, subtropical - subpolar, equatorial - subtropical, tropical - polar).
Theme: "Unrest in the World Ocean."
Task 1. Draw a diagram “Change in the profile of a trochoidal wave with depth” and prepare its analysis in text form.
Task 2. Independently, having studied literary sources, prepare and fill out the table “Main characteristics of progressive and standing waves with depth"
Topic: “The influence of the ocean on climate and weather-forming processes in the atmosphere.”
Task 1. Prepare in text form a comparative analysis of the map data “Heat gained or lost by the ocean surface due to the action of sea currents” (according to options: Atlantic - Pacific, Pacific - Indian, Atlantic - Indian, Arctic - Indian).
Task 2. Prepare and defend an essay on one of the following topics:
1) “Small-scale interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere”,
2) “Mesoscale interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere”,
3) “Large-scale interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere”,
4) “The El Niño-Southern Oscillation system” as a manifestation of the interannual variability of the ocean-atmosphere system,
5) “Reaction of the ocean-atmosphere system to changes in land surface albedo,”
6) “Reaction of the ocean-atmosphere system to changes in the concentration of atmospheric CO 2”,
7) “Reaction of the ocean-atmosphere system to changes in the ratio of ocean and land areas”,
8) “Reaction of the ocean-atmosphere system to changes in vegetation cover”,
9) “Heat exchange in the ocean-atmosphere system”,
10) “Moisture exchange in the ocean-atmosphere system.”
PROTOCOL FOR APPROVAL OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM
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Name of the academic discipline with which approval is required |
Name |
Proposals for changes in the content of the curriculum of a higher education institution in academic discipline |
The decision made by the department that developed curriculum(indicating the date and protocol number) |
|
1. Geophysics |
No changes required Protocol No. 7 of February 23, 2016 |
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2. Hydrology |
General geosciences and hydrometeorology |
No changes required Protocol No. 7 of February 23, 2016 |
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3. Meteorology and climatology |
General geosciences and hydrometeorology |
No changes required Protocol No. 7 of February 23, 2016 |
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4. Synoptic meteorology |
General geosciences and hydrometeorology |
No changes required Protocol No. 7 of February 23, 2016 |
ADDITIONS AND CHANGES TO THE UHE CURRICULUM
to _____/_____ academic year
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Additions and changes |
Base |
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| process Main educational program |
The world ocean, covering 2/3 of the earth's surface, is a huge water reservoir, the mass of water in which is 1.4 kilograms or 1.4 billion cubic kilometers. Ocean water makes up 97% of all water on the planet.
The oceans are the future of humanity. Its waters are inhabited by numerous organisms, many of which are valuable biological resources of the planet, and in the thickness of the earth's crust covered by the Ocean - most of all the mineral resources of the Earth.
In conditions of a shortage of fossil raw materials and continuous accelerated scientific and technological progress for half a century, when explored deposits natural resources It is becoming less and less economically profitable to develop on land; people turn their gaze hopefully to the vast territories of the Ocean.
The ocean, and especially its coastal zone, plays a leading role in supporting life on Earth. After all, about 70% of the oxygen entering the planet’s atmosphere is produced during photosynthesis by plankton (phytoplankton). Blue-green algae that live in the world's oceans serve as a giant filter that purifies water as it circulates. It receives polluted river and rainwater and, through evaporation, returns moisture to the continent in the form of clean precipitation.
world ocean pollution resource
The entire World Ocean occupies 361 million sq. km (about 71% of the entire Earth's surface), and on fresh waters accounts for only 20 million sq. km, and the total volume of the entire hydrosphere is 1390 million cubic meters. km, of which the actual waters of the Ocean are 96.4%.
The world's oceans are usually divided into separate oceans. Three of them, those that are intersected by the equator, usually do not raise doubts; one can only argue about the boundaries. Abroad, not everyone still recognizes the independence of the Arctic Ocean. Its most ardent defenders were in the 30s of the twentieth century. Soviet scientists who rightly argued that this ocean, although small in size, is a completely independent water area. As for the Southern Ocean, it used to be marked on maps, but in the 20s it disappeared, it was divided between the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian. And only in the 60s, after several years of intense research work in Antarctica, it was again proposed to distinguish it as an independent one.
The sea is part of the World Ocean. The bay too. Calling any water area a sea or a bay is purely a matter of tradition. Two bodies of water close in size and similar in regime on opposite sides of the same peninsula are called one the Arabian Sea, the other the Bay of Bengal. The tiny Sea of Azov is a sea, and two huge water areas to the north and south of North America are called the bays of Hudson and Mexico. Count how many seas are allocated within one Mediterranean Sea. So there is no need to look for objective criteria for distinguishing seas and bays; let them be called as is customary.
Speaking about straits, we need to find out whether the students have well understood the difference between the concepts connects and separates. For example, the Bosporus Strait separates the Balkan and Asia Minor peninsulas (if wider, then Europe and Asia) and connects the Black Sea with the Marmara Sea. The Dardanelles Strait shares the same but connects the Sea of Marmara to the Aegean.
According to physical and geographical features, which are expressed in the hydrological regime, the World Ocean is divided into separate oceans, seas, bays, bays and straits. The most widespread modern division of the Ocean (World Ocean) is based on the idea of the morphological, hydrological and hydrochemical features of its water areas, more or less isolated by continents and islands. The boundaries of the Ocean (World Ocean) are clearly expressed only by the coastlines of the land washed by it; internal boundaries between individual oceans, seas and their parts are to some extent arbitrary. Guided by the specifics of physical and geographical conditions, some researchers also distinguish the Southern Ocean as a separate one, with a boundary along the line of subtropical or subantarctic convergence or along latitudinal segments of mid-ocean ridges.
In the Northern Hemisphere, water occupies 61% of the globe's surface, in the Southern Hemisphere - 81%. North of 81° N. w. in the Arctic Ocean and approximately between 56° and 63° S. w. waters Ocean (World Ocean) cover globe continuous layer. Based on the distribution of water and land, the globe is divided into oceanic and continental hemispheres. The pole of the first is located in the Pacific Ocean, to the south - east of New Zealand, the second - in the north - 3. France. In the oceanic hemisphere, the waters of the Ocean (World Ocean) occupy 91% of the area, in the continental hemisphere - 53%.
In the process of planetary exchange of matter and energy in the atmosphere and hydrosphere, the properties of the waters of the World Ocean are formed. The energy of water movement, coming with solar radiation, enters the ocean from above. It is natural, therefore, that in a vertical section the water column breaks up into large layers, similar to the layers of the atmosphere; they are also called spheres. It is customary to distinguish four spheres: upper, intermediate, deep and bottom.
The upper sphere is a layer 200-300 m thick, characterized by mixing, light penetration and temperature fluctuations.
The intermediate sphere extends to depths of 1500-2000 m. Its waters are formed from surface waters as they descend. At the same time, they are cooled and compacted, and then move in horizontal directions, mainly with a zonal component.
The deep sphere does not reach the bottom for about 1000 m. It is characterized by homogeneity (homogeneity) of water. This sphere, at least 2000 m thick, contains almost half of all ocean water.
The bottom sphere is about 1000 m thick from the bottom. Its waters form in cold zones, in Antarctica and the Arctic, and move over vast areas along deep (over 4000 m) basins and trenches. They perceive heat from the depths of the earth and chemically interact with the ocean floor. Therefore, they are significantly transformed.
In the upper sphere there are water masses - relatively large volumes of water that form in a certain area of the World Ocean and have almost constant physical (temperature, light), chemical (salinity, gases), biological (plankton) properties for a long time and move as a single whole .
The following zonal types of water masses are distinguished in the World Ocean: equatorial, tropical and subtropical, temperate, polar.
Equatorial water masses are characterized by the highest temperature in the open ocean, low salinity (up to 32-34°/0°), minimal density, and high content of oxygen and phosphates. Tropical and subtropical water masses are formed in the region of tropical atmospheric anticyclones and are characterized by increased (up to 37°/oo and above) salinity and high transparency, poverty of nutrient salts and plankton. These are ocean deserts.
Temperate water masses are located in temperate latitudes and are characterized by great variability in properties both by geographic latitude and by season. They are characterized by intense exchange of heat and moisture with the atmosphere.
The polar water masses of the Arctic and Antarctic are characterized by the lowest temperature, highest density, and high oxygen content. Antarctic waters intensively sink into the bottom sphere and supply it with oxygen. Arctic water, which has low salinity and therefore low density, does not extend beyond the upper intermediate sphere. The water mass is quasi-stationary. Each water mass has its own source of formation. When moving, the water masses mix and change properties. When water masses meet, frontal zones arise that differ in gradients of temperature, salinity, and therefore density (Fig. 8).
Frontal zones are zones of convergence. During convergence, water accumulates, ocean levels rise, water pressure and density increase, and it sinks.
Since in the ocean only the lowering of water cannot occur, but there must also be a compensatory rise of water, along with zones of convergence there are also zones of divergence (divergence) of currents where water rises. Average speed non-periodic vertical movements in the ocean are only a few centimeters per day. Therefore, the rise of cold waters from the depths of the ocean to the surface off the eastern shores of the oceans at a speed of several tens of centimeters per day is called powerful (upwelling). Rising from the depths of the ocean cold water contains a lot nutrients, therefore such areas are richer in fish.
Cold deep waters, entering the surface layer, gradually warm up and, under the influence of wind circulation, move in a system of drift currents to high latitudes, transferring heat. As a result, the ocean transfers more heat from low latitudes than the atmosphere.
The world's oceans and atmosphere form a single system. The ocean is the main heat accumulator on Earth, a giant converter of radiant energy into heat. Almost all the heat received by the lower layers of the atmosphere is latent heat of condensation contained in water vapor. Moreover, more than half of this heat comes from tropical regions. The latent energy entering the atmosphere with water vapor is partially converted into mechanical energy, which ensures the movement of air masses and the emergence of wind. The wind transfers energy to the water surface, causing disturbances and ocean currents, transferring heat from low latitudes to higher latitudes.
Along with energy metabolism, the interaction of the ocean and the atmosphere is accompanied by the exchange of substances (water vapor, gases, salts). The processes of interaction between the two moving shells of the Earth are extremely complex, and their study is very important. This is primarily necessary for understanding the complex picture of the formation of weather and climates on Earth, to meet practical requirements specialists in weather forecasting, commercial oceanology, navigation, underwater, acoustics, etc.