In February 1917, a bourgeois-democratic revolution took place in Russia. None of the parties prepared it. The events took place from February 23 to 27, 1917. On February 27, the Petrograd garrison went over to the side of the rebels. The driving forces of the revolution were: the working class, the peasantry and the bourgeoisie. On March 2, Tsar Nicholas 2 signed his abdication from the throne. In favor of his son Alexei. But because he was ill, he handed over the throne to his brother Mikhail Alexandrovich. Mikhail, seeing the chaos in the country, transferred power to the constituent assembly. On February 27, a meeting of the Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies led by the Mensheviks took place at the Tauride Palace. On March 2, the day of the Tsar’s abdication, representatives of the Duma created a provisional bourgeois government with the consent of the Mensheviks and Essers, who believed that this revolution was bourgeois-democratic in nature. And power must belong to the bourgeoisie. Provided that the government will carry out democratic reforms in the country. Thus, dual power was formed in Russia. Actual power was in the hands of workers, peasants and soldiers, and legal power belonged to the provisional bourgeois government, headed by Prince Lvov. The first order of the Congress of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies was an order for the army. The soldiers and officers were reduced to failure. This led to the collapse of the army. Similar council bodies were organized locally. The lion's number of seats in the provisional government were cadets and Octobrists. The provisional bourgeois government made a wish to carry out democratic reforms in the country: 1 Establishment of an 8-hour working day; 2 amnesty for political prisoners; 3 provision of political freedoms in the country: freedom of speech, press, assembly, demonstration; 4 liquidation of estates; 5 equality of all workers religious principles etc. But the first interim government did not solve the main issues of the country's development. This: 1 the peasant question (they demanded the landowners' land);

2 labor issue (increasing wages, establishing an 8-hour working day, adopting labor legislation)

3 national question (equality of nations and obtaining the right to self-determination)

4 question of war and peace. Because the war was not popular and the first one was still going on world war. World War 1 ended in November 1918.

Most of the seats in the government were occupied by the Cadets, headed by Kudyakov. They advocated the Western bourgeois-democratic path of development of the country. But from the very beginning it was clear that the cadets were not popular among the people. In cities, from 4 to 10% of people voted for them. In rural areas a little more than 10%. Western civilization in 1917 was in crisis. Therefore, the majority of the population supported socialist ideas. These supported the Esser, Menshevik and Bolshevik parties. The Esser party, led by Chernov, numbered 1 million people. They believed that Russia was not ready for the socialist path of development. Therefore, she mainly spoke on behalf of the peasants. She spoke out to take the land from the landowners and distribute it to the peasants according to their working souls. The Mensheviks divided into 3 movements. The right movement was led by Plekhanov. Skilled workers voted for them. Left current headed by Tsereteli. The middle current was led by Martov (Menshevik internationalists). The Mensheviks also believed that Russia was not ready for socialism. They believed that war could only help resolve issues of the country's future development. The most militant and organized party was the Bolshevik party led by Lenin. In February 1917, it numbered 24 thousand people. She was guided by the theory of Marxism-Leninism. The Bolsheviks put forward slogans that everyone could understand: 1 factories for workers, 2 land for peasants, 3 power for soviets, 4 peace for huts. By October 17, their number increased to 350 thousand thanks to clear slogans. It had bright, charismatic leaders, primarily Vladimir Ilyich Lenin and Lev Davydovich Trotsky. Who was the de facto leader of the October uprising of 1917. In April 1917, Lenin arrived in Russia at the Finnish station and delivered a report on “The Tasks of the Proletariat in Our Revolution.” This report was called “Lenin's April Theses”: 1 Do not trust the provisional bourgeois government; 2 The development of the bourgeois-democratic revolution into a socialist proletarian revolution; 3 All power to the soviets, represented by the working class and the poorest peasantry; 4 Gaining power through peaceful or non-peaceful means; 5 nationalization of landowners' land; 6 creation of a national Russian bank. Etc. On June 1, at the first congress of workers, peasants and soldiers' deputies, Lenin declared that in Russia there is a party that is ready to take power into its own hands immediately. By the summer of 17, there was an economic crisis throughout the country, people were not happy. And in July, the Bolsheviks prepared a demonstration against the provisional government, numbering almost half a million people with armed sailors. Naturally, the provisional government took action and the demonstration was shot. Dual power ended in Russia. Both the right and left representatives of the masses sought to restore order in Russia. Leftists at the 6th Congress of the Bolshevik Party. They proposed preparing for an armed uprising to seize power. The right-wing representatives of the masses are landowners, capitalists, bankers, officers, generals and others. They found their leader in the person of Commander-in-Chief General Kornilov. In Moscow in mid-August 17, a meeting of representatives of right-wing forces (rich) took place. At which Kornilov made a report. He stated that he would introduce the death penalty not only at the front, but also in the rear, and would restore order in the country. He chose the time when the Germans were advancing on Riga and sent troops to Petrograd against Kerensky, who was at that time the prime minister of the provisional government. The Bolshevik had to enter into an alliance with Kerensky. To suppress Kornilov's rebellion peacefully. They persuaded the soldiers not to go brother against brother. And thus the rebellion was suppressed. Kornilov, Denikin and other generals were arrested, and then they fled to Novocherkassk to organize resistance to the Soviet army. After the suppression of the Kornilov rebellion, the authority of the Bolsheviks greatly increased. Elections took place in almost all councils and the Bolsheviks won. Under these conditions, Lenin proposes preparing for an armed uprising. A military revolutionary committee was created. There was no consensus among the Bolshevik leadership on when to seize power. Moderate Bolsheviks, led by Kamenev, declared that Russia was not ready to seize power to build socialism. Trotsky declared that the uprising should be timed to coincide with the beginning of the 2nd Congress (RSDLP-Russian Social Democratic Labor Party, that was the name of the Bolshevik Party). So that this uprising would be legal. Lenin's point of view won. And a number of his articles were published: “The crisis is ripe.” On the night of October 24-25, 1917, troops loyal to Lenin captured the Winter Palace and arrested the provisional government. And on October 26, at the party congress, a council of commissioners was formed. The Council of People's Commissars is the Soviet government headed by Lenin. There are 13 people in total. An all-Russian executive committee was organized. Mostly Bolsheviks.

At the 2nd Congress of Soviets, 2 decrees were adopted. 1. Decree on Peace, which read. Russia offers all warring countries to make peace without annexations and indemnities (annexation is the seizure of foreign territories. Indemnity is the payment of the loot). 2 Decree on land. It proposed to abolish private ownership of land and transfer it to local councils. After coming to power, the Bolsheviks carried out a number of important social changes that were designed to make people's lives easier: 1 Decree on the 8-hour working day; 2 decree on labor protection for women and adolescents; 3 Elimination of unemployment; 4 Free medical care and schooling; 5 Abolition of estates, ranks, titles and other decrees.

The October Revolution of 1917 occurred on October 25 according to the old style or November 7 according to the new style. Initiator, ideologist and main actor revolution was the Bolshevik Party (Russian Social Democratic Bolshevik Party), led by Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (party pseudonym Lenin) and Lev Davidovich Bronstein (Trotsky). As a result, power changed in Russia. Instead of a bourgeois government, the country was led by a proletarian government.

Goals of the October Revolution of 1917

Building a more just society than capitalism
Eliminating the exploitation of man by man
Equality of people in rights and responsibilities
The main motto of the socialist revolution of 1917 is “To each according to his needs, from each according to his work”
Fight against wars
World socialist revolution

Slogans of the revolution

"Power to the Soviets"
"Peace to the Nations"
"Land to the peasants"
"Factory to workers"

Objective reasons for the October Revolution of 1917

Economic difficulties experienced by Russia due to participation in the First World War
Huge human losses from the same
Things going wrong at the front
The incompetent leadership of the country, first by the tsarist, then by the bourgeois (Provisional) government
The unresolved peasant question (the issue of allocating land to peasants)
Difficult living conditions for workers
Almost complete illiteracy of the people
Unfair national policies

Subjective reasons for the October Revolution of 1917

The presence in Russia of a small but well-organized, disciplined group - the Bolshevik Party
The primacy in it of the great historical Personality - V. I. Lenin
The absence of a person of the same caliber in the camp of her opponents
Ideological vacillations of the intelligentsia: from Orthodoxy and nationalism to anarchism and support for terrorism
The activities of German intelligence and diplomacy, which had the goal of weakening Russia as one of Germany’s opponents in the war
Passivity of the population

Interesting: the causes of the Russian revolution according to writer Nikolai Starikov

Methods for building a new society

Nationalization and transfer to state ownership of means of production and land
Eradication of private property
Physical elimination of political opposition
Concentration of power in the hands of one party
Atheism instead of religiosity
Marxism-Leninism instead of Orthodoxy

Trotsky led the immediate seizure of power by the Bolsheviks

“By the night of the 24th, members of the Revolutionary Committee dispersed to different areas. I was left alone. Later Kamenev came. He was opposed to the uprising. But he came to spend this decisive night with me, and we remained alone in a small corner room on the third floor, which resembled the captain’s bridge on the decisive night of the revolution. In the next large and deserted room there was a telephone booth. They called continuously, about important things and about trifles. The bells emphasized the guarded silence even more sharply... Detachments of workers, sailors, and soldiers were awake in the areas. Young proletarians have rifles and machine gun belts over their shoulders. Street pickets warm themselves by the fires. The spiritual life of the capital, which on an autumn night squeezes its head from one era to another, is concentrated around two dozen telephones.
In the room on the third floor, news from all districts, suburbs and approaches to the capital converge. It’s as if everything is provided for, leaders are in place, connections are secured, it seems that nothing is forgotten. Let's check it mentally again. This night decides.
... I give the commissars the order to set up reliable military barriers on the roads to Petrograd and send agitators to meet the units called by the government...” If you can’t restrain yourself with words, use your weapons. You are responsible for this with your head." I repeat this phrase several times... The Smolny outer guard has been reinforced with a new machine gun team. Communication with all parts of the garrison remains uninterrupted. Duty companies are kept awake in all regiments. The commissioners are in place. Armed detachments move through the streets from the districts, ring the bell at the gates or open them without ringing, and occupy one institution after another.
...In the morning I attack the bourgeois and conciliatory press. Not a word about the beginning of the uprising.
The government still met in the Winter Palace, but it had already become only a shadow of its former self. Politically it no longer existed. During October 25, the Winter Palace was gradually cordoned off by our troops from all sides. At one o'clock in the afternoon I reported to the Petrograd Soviet on the state of affairs. Here's how the newspaper report portrays it:
“On behalf of the Military Revolutionary Committee, I declare that the Provisional Government no longer exists. (Applause.) Individual ministers have been arrested. (“Bravo!”) Others will be arrested in the coming days or hours. (Applause.) The revolutionary garrison, at the disposal of the Military Revolutionary Committee, dissolved the meeting of the Pre-Parliament. (Noisy applause.) We stayed awake here at night and watched through the telephone wire as detachments of revolutionary soldiers and workers' guards silently carried out their work. The average person slept peacefully and did not know that at this time one power was being replaced by another. Stations, post office, telegraph, Petrograd Telegraph Agency, State Bank are busy. (Noisy applause.) The Winter Palace has not yet been taken, but its fate will be decided in the next few minutes. (Applause.)"
This bare report is likely to give a wrong impression of the mood of the meeting. This is what my memory tells me. When I reported on the change of power that had taken place that night, tense silence reigned for several seconds. Then came the applause, but not stormy, but thoughtful... “Can we handle it?” — many people asked themselves mentally. Hence a moment of anxious thought. We'll handle it, everyone answered. New dangers loomed in the distant future. And now there was a feeling great victory, and this feeling sang in the blood. It found its outlet in a stormy meeting arranged for Lenin, who appeared at this meeting for the first time after an absence of almost four months.”(Trotsky “My Life”).

Results of the October Revolution of 1917

The elite in Russia has completely changed. The one that ruled the state for 1000 years, set the tone in politics, economics, public life, was an example to follow and an object of envy and hatred, gave way to others who before that really “were nothing”
The Russian Empire fell, but its place was taken by the Soviet Empire, which for several decades became one of the two countries (together with the USA) that led the world community
The Tsar was replaced by Stalin, who acquired significantly greater powers than any Russian emperor.
The ideology of Orthodoxy was replaced by communist
Russia (more precisely Soviet Union) within a few years transformed from an agricultural to a powerful industrial power
Literacy has become universal
The Soviet Union achieved the withdrawal of education and medical care from the system of commodity-money relations
There was no unemployment in the USSR
In recent decades, the leadership of the USSR has achieved almost complete equality of the population in income and opportunities.
In the Soviet Union there was no division of people into poor and rich
In the numerous wars that Russia waged during the years of Soviet power, as a result of terror, from various economic experiments, tens of millions of people died, the fates of probably the same number of people were broken, distorted, millions left the country, becoming emigrants
The country's gene pool has changed catastrophically
The lack of incentives to work, the absolute centralization of the economy, and huge military expenditures have led Russia (USSR) to a significant technological lag behind the developed countries of the world.
In Russia (USSR), in practice, democratic freedoms were completely absent - speech, conscience, demonstrations, rallies, press (although they were declared in the Constitution).
The Russian proletariat lived materially much worse than the workers of Europe and America

At the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets, which opened on the evening of October 25, the Menshevik internationalist Yu.O. Martov attempted to create a homogeneous socialist government, which the Socialist Revolutionaries also advocated. A resolution was even passed approving his proposal. However, it was not possible to create a multi-party Soviet government, on the one hand, due to the speeches and demonstrative departure from the congress of 70 delegates of the Mensheviks, Right Socialist Revolutionaries, Bundists and others, and on the other, due to the negative reaction of the congress to these actions. The congress adopted the Decree on Peace, largely borrowed from the Socialist Revolutionaries' Decree on Land; formed a temporary (until the convening of the Constituent Assembly) purely Bolshevik government (Council of People's Commissars) headed by V.I. Lenin.

The October Revolution, carried out under general democratic rather than socialist slogans, quickly won throughout the country: by the spring of 1918, Soviet power was established in most of Russia.

Modern assessments, alternatives to choosing the historical path of Russia in 1917

Were there alternatives to the October Revolution and the Bolsheviks coming to power? Many authors believe that the collapse of the bourgeois-liberal path of development was inevitable, because the Western path of development, advocated by the Provisional Government and the Cadets, attracted only a small part of society, and the masses were committed to the ideals of communal democracy and considered the bourgeoisie, landowners, and intelligentsia as carriers of an alien culture. Therefore, the Western path could not be chosen from below by the broad masses of the people.

Some researchers believe that an alternative to October could have been the combination of the Soviet system with parliamentary, communal democracy with the Western one. In their opinion, this path ensured civil harmony in the country. However, liberals, right-wing Social Revolutionaries, and Mensheviks linked the future of Russia only with Western models. This doomed them to lack mass support. The Bolsheviks, the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, and some of the Mensheviks were not so categorical. But the Bolsheviks, speaking out for the transfer of power to the Soviets, viewed them as a form of dictatorship of the proletariat and categorically rejected “bourgeois parliamentarism.”

There were still politicians in Russia who advocated civil harmony. In the period from February to October this idea was expressed by L.B. Kamenev and G.E. Zinoviev, speaking against the decision of the Central Committee of the RSDLP (b) on an armed uprising, at the Second Congress of Soviets Yu.O. Martov spoke out for the creation of a homogeneous socialist government.

Immediately after the October coup, when VIKZHEL (All-Russian Executive Committee of Railway Workers), threatening a strike, demanded the creation of a “uniform socialist government”, this idea found supporters in the Bolshevik Party, who, due to disagreements on this issue with other members, left the Central Committee and the government (6 people). Finally, the last chance for civil harmony was the Constituent Assembly (held on January 5-6, 1918), but it was dispersed by the Bolsheviks. Thus, these researchers believe, the “third way” (rather than a right or left dictatorship) turned out to be unrealized due to the theoretical and practical failure of the Russian political elite.

Views are also expressed that an alternative to October could have been the establishment of a military dictatorship and chaos, collapse Russian state. One way or another, the Bolsheviks came to power in October 1917 and the formation of the Bolshevik regime began.

The Great Russian Revolution is the revolutionary events that occurred in Russia in 1917, starting with the overthrow of the monarchy during the February Revolution, when power passed to the Provisional Government, which was overthrown by the October Revolution of the Bolsheviks, who proclaimed Soviet power.

February Revolution of 1917 - Main revolutionary events in Petrograd

Reason for the revolution: Labor conflict at the Putilov plant between workers and owners; interruptions in the food supply to Petrograd.

Main events February Revolution took place in Petrograd. The army leadership, headed by the Chief of Staff of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, General M.V. Alekseev, and the commanders of the fronts and fleets, considered that they did not have the means to suppress the riots and strikes that had engulfed Petrograd. Emperor Nicholas II abdicated the throne. After his intended successor, Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich also abdicated the throne, the State Duma took control of the country, forming the Provisional Government of Russia.

With the formation of Soviets parallel to the Provisional Government, a period of dual power began. The Bolsheviks formed detachments of armed workers (Red Guard), thanks to attractive slogans they gained significant popularity, primarily in Petrograd, Moscow, in large industrial cities, the Baltic Fleet, and the troops of the Northern and Western Fronts.


	Demonstrations of women demanding bread and the return of men from the front.
	The beginning of a general political strike under the slogans: “Down with tsarism!”, “Down with autocracy!”, “Down with war!” (300 thousand people). Clashes between demonstrators and police and gendarmerie. The Tsar’s telegram to the commander of the Petrograd Military District demanding “tomorrow stop the unrest in the capital!”
	Arrests of leaders of socialist parties and workers' organizations (100 people). Shooting of workers' demonstrations. Proclamation of the Tsar's decree on dissolution State Duma for two months. The troops (4th company of the Pavlovsk regiment) opened fire on the police.
	Mutiny of the reserve battalion of the Volyn regiment, its transition to the side of the strikers. The beginning of a massive transfer of troops to the side of the revolution. Creation of the Provisional Committee of Members of the State Duma and the Provisional Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet.
	Creation of a provisional government
	Abdication of Tsar Nicholas II from the throne

Results of the revolution and dual power

October Revolution of 1917 main events

During October Revolution Petrograd Military Revolutionary Committee, established by the Bolsheviks led by L.D. Trotsky and V.I. Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government. At the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, the Bolsheviks withstood a difficult struggle with the Mensheviks and right-wing Socialist Revolutionaries, and the first Soviet government was formed. In December 1917, a government coalition of Bolsheviks and Left Socialist Revolutionaries was formed. In March 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed with Germany.

By the summer of 1918, a one-party government was finally formed, and the active phase of the Civil War and foreign intervention in Russia began, which began with the uprising of the Czechoslovak Corps. The end of the Civil War created the conditions for the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

	Main events of the October Revolution
	The provisional government suppressed peaceful demonstrations against the government, arrests, the Bolsheviks were outlawed, restored death penalty, the end of dual power.
	The 6th Congress of the RSDLP has passed - a course has been set for a socialist revolution.
	State meeting in Moscow, Kornilova L.G. they wanted to declare him a military dictator and simultaneously disperse all the Soviets. An active popular uprising disrupted the plans. Increasing the authority of the Bolsheviks.
	Kerensky A.F. declared Russia a republic.
	Lenin secretly returned to Petrograd.
	Meeting of the Bolshevik Central Committee, V.I. Lenin spoke. and emphasized that it is necessary to take power from 10 people - for, against - Kamenev and Zinoviev. The Political Bureau was elected, headed by Lenin.
	The Executive Committee of the Petrograd Council (headed by L.D. Trotsky) adopted the regulations on the Petrograd Military Revolutionary Committee (military revolutionary committee) - the legal headquarters for preparing the uprising. The All-Russian Revolutionary Center was created - a military revolutionary center (Ya.M. Sverdlov, F.E. Dzerzhinsky, A.S. Bubnov, M.S. Uritsky and I.V. Stalin).
	Kamenev in the newspaper " New life- with a protest against the uprising.
	Petrograd garrison on the side of the Soviets
	The Provisional Government gave the order to the cadets to seize the printing house of the Bolshevik newspaper “Rabochy Put” and arrest the members of the Military Revolutionary Committee who were in Smolny.
	Revolutionary troops occupied the Central Telegraph, Izmailovsky Station, controlled bridges, and blocked all cadet schools. The Military Revolutionary Committee sent a telegram to Kronstadt and Tsentrobalt about calling the ships of the Baltic Fleet. The order was carried out.
	October 25 - meeting of the Petrograd Soviet. Lenin gave a speech, uttering the famous words: “Comrades! The workers’ and peasants’ revolution, the need for which the Bolsheviks kept talking about, has come true.”
	The salvo of the cruiser Aurora became the signal for the storming of the Winter Palace, and the Provisional Government was arrested.
	2nd Congress of Soviets, at which Soviet power was proclaimed.

Provisional Government of Russia in 1917

Heads of the Russian government in 1905 - 1917.

Witte S.Yu.	Chairman of the Council of Ministers
Goremykin I.L.	Chairman of the Council of Ministers
Stolypin P.A.	Chairman of the Council of Ministers
Kokovtsev V.II.	Chairman of the Council of Ministers
Sturmer B.V.	Chairman of the Council of Ministers

The 1917 revolution in Russia is a key event for understanding the history of the country and the world over the past 100-150 years. For several decades now, these events have attracted the attention of domestic and foreign scientists belonging to different political directions of history and historical schools.

There are many assessments of these events, they are contradictory and often polar opposite. Let's look at the most common of them.

1. In October 1917, an inter-formation socialist revolution took place, which ushered in the era of transition from capitalism to socialism (communism) throughout the world. This concept dominated in Soviet historiography and still remains dominant in the public consciousness, but it is far from the truth, because it is ideologically utopian.

2. In October 1917, the workers' and peasants' democratic revolution took place. This assessment is defended by social scientists from the sixties (A.P. Butenko, P.V. Volobuev, etc.).

In October 1917 The Bolsheviks, relying on the revolutionary part of the army and navy, carried out a military coup. usurped power. This position arose immediately after October 1917, and is based on real facts, and does not explain why the Bolsheviks were able to retain power for so long.

October 1917 is the result of a conspiracy and seizure of power by a handful of Bolshevik leaders who imposed a tragic path of development on the country. This point of view appeared immediately after the tragic events, was widespread in foreign historiography, and from there came to us during the years of perestroika. Indeed, elements of conspiracy in the October events were evident, as indeed in any revolution: a plan for the uprising was developed, armed forces and leadership centers for the uprising were created, etc. However, a conspiracy can be successful in conditions of stability social system(an example is the dismissal of N.S. Khrushchev in 1964), in conditions of instability the conspiracy is doomed to failure (Kornilov conspiracy in 1917, State Emergency Committee in 1991). Without mass political support, the conspirators cannot stabilize the situation in the country, and, therefore, cannot retain power. Bolsheviks in 1917 had broad mass support, therefore it was not a conspiracy.

5. October Revolution of 1917 was an anarchic rebellion, a revolution of the lumpen, and therefore was destructive in nature and threw the country far back. This is the assessment of radical Westerners. The lumpen actually took an active part in the October Revolution of 1917, as well as in all other revolutions, but they are only capable of destroying, not creating, but after 1917 there was creation and a fairly stable society was created. THAT. There is no reason to attribute to the lumpen a decisive role in the fate of the great 170 million people. great power that Russia was.

None of these most common estimates are credible. All of them exhibit the syndrome civil war, the need to choose between whites and reds, but our past is one and inseparable and “it should be perceived in its difficult and tragic integrity.”

All the specifics of the economic and political development of Russia, namely:

1. catch-up type of development;

2. deformation of the relationship between economic and social development;

3. a deep gap between the industrial and agricultural structures;

4. uneven development of capitalism across regions and the short-sighted imperial policy of tsarism;

5. underdevelopment of the social class structure to the level of a bourgeois state;

6. general low cultural level of the population;

7. weak middle class(the basis of the reformist path)

Led the country to a revolutionary explosion in 1917. For Russia, which had embarked on the path of capitalist modernization, a revolutionary breakthrough was necessary in order to survive and stay afloat.

But why did the country not stop at the stage of the bourgeois-democratic revolution? Why, having broken all political stereotypes, did she rush into the unknown abyss of social creativity that the Bolsheviks called for? Why exactly did the Bolsheviks, a party that was almost forgotten in Russia by the beginning of 1917 (since 1914 they were illegal, in February 1917 numbered 10-20 thousand people), soared to the pinnacle of power by October 1917?